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Purpose: This document provides
standards that clarify and describe a full range of scholarship
within the discipline of nursing. In particular, this
statement focuses on four aspects of scholarship that are
salient to academic nursing-- discovery, teaching, applications
in clinical practice, and integration of ideas from nursing
and other disciplines. These areas support the values of a
profession committed to both social relevance and scientific
advancement. This document is not intended as prescriptive,
or as exclusive of other considerations. It is a descriptive
tool, and may be used to guide promotion, tenure, and merit
reviews in a way that is appropriate to the profession; expand
the scope of recognized scholarly activities; guide individual
career planning; and demonstrate the growth of the profession
over time. The unique culture and context of each academic
institution, and the priorities of each nursing unit, will
determine the relevance and value of the proposed standards
within its own setting.
Background
Colleges and universities across the nation
are striving to meet the challenges of rapidly changing educational
systems, and are reconsidering the role of the faculty in
an increasingly complex learning environment. An important
part of that role is the creation of scholarship pertinent
to the discipline of the individual faculty member. Many academic
disciplines such as history, engineering, social work, psychology,
business, education, and many others are in the process of
redefining the traditional boundaries of scholarship, and
are examining the faculty reward system that perpetuates these
boundaries (Diamond & Adam, 1995; Glassick, Huber, & Maeroff,
1997).
Nowhere is this dialogue more pertinent than
in nursing, where rigorous scholarly inquiry must be applied
in the realities and demands of practice. Nursing faculty,
like others whose discipline brings together scientific investigation
and application through professional services, often function
in a system designed to reward and promote a narrow definition
of academic success. Nursing, however, may have priorities
for teaching, scholarship, and service that are linked directly
to the goals of the profession.
Rationale
Boyer (1990) challenged all disciplines to
embrace the full scope of academic work, moving beyond an
exclusive focus on traditional and narrowly defined research
as the only legitimate avenue to further the knowledge of
the discipline, and to obtain rewards for professorial performance.
He proposed that scholarship involves four areas that are
critical to academic work. These are the scholarship of
...discovery, where new and unique knowledge
is generated;
...teaching, where the teacher creatively builds
bridges between his or her own understanding and the students'
learning;
...application, where the emphasis is on the
use of new knowledge in solving society's problems; and
...integration, where new relationships among
disciplines are discovered.
These four aspects of scholarship are salient
to academic nursing, where each specified area supports the
values of a profession committed to both social relevance
and scientific advancement. This document builds upon the
work of Boyer (1990) and Diamond & Adam (1995); the rich history
of nursing scholarship (Donaldson & Crowley, 1978; Stevenson,
1988); and statements by members of the profession that clarify
the beliefs and values of academic leadership on interdisciplinary
collaboration (AACN, 1995), research (AACN, 1998), faculty
practice (AACN, 1993), and education (AACN, 1997).
Definition of Scholarship in Nursing
Scholarship in nursing can be defined as
those activities that systematically advance the teaching,
research, and practice of nursing through rigorous inquiry
that 1) is significant to the profession, 2) is creative,
3) can be documented, 4) can be replicated or elaborated,
and 5) can be peer-reviewed through various methods. This
definition is applied in the following standards that describe
scholarship in nursing.
Standards
Scholarship of Discovery
The scholarship of discovery is inquiry that
produces the disciplinary and professional knowledge that
is at the very heart of academic pursuits (Boyer, 1990). Within
nursing, the scholarship of discovery reflects the unique
perspective of nursing that "takes an expanded view of health
by emphasizing health promotion, restoration, and rehabilitation,
as well as a commitment to caring and comfort (AACN, 1998,
p.1)." The scholarship of discovery takes the form of primary
empirical research, historical research, theory development
and testing, methodological studies, and philosophical inquiry
and analysis. It increasingly is interdisciplinary and collaborative
in nature, across professional groups and within nursing itself.
Primary empirical research is the systematic
collection of data to answer an empirical question or test
an hypothesis. A variety of qualitative and quantitative designs
is used, including experimental, quasi-experimental, descriptive,
exploratory, case studies, and ethnography. Source materials
include primary empirical measurements, observations and specimens,
databases created for other purposes, and published reports
of research.
Historical research includes original
investigations using manuscripts, documents, oral narrative,
and other printed and non-printed materials.
Theory development is the process of
drawing together scientific and experiential knowledge, assumptions,
and principles into a systematic set of statements that have
explanatory and predictive power with respect to an area of
experience. Scientific theories suggest explanations for phenomena
that may be subjected to empirical tests.
Methodological studies include the development
and testing of new or revised methods of inquiry that have
utility in generating knowledge.
Philosophical inquiry in nursing is
metaphysical, epistemological, and ethical and involves critical
reasoning and argument that is systematic, rational, and critical.
It seeks to answer questions related to the meaning of health
and illness in the context of human life, how we acquire and
evaluate knowledge, and the standards of conduct of life.
Whether arguments are inductive or deductive in nature, assumptions
are thoroughly examined and principles of logical thought
and proof are followed.
Examples of Documentation of the Quality
of the Scholarship of Discovery
- peer-reviewed publications of research,
theory, or philosophical essays;
- presentations of research, theory, or philosophical
essays;
- grant awards in support of research or scholarship;
- mentorship of junior colleagues in research
or scholarship;
- state, regional, national, or international
recognition as a scholar in an identified area; and
- positive peer evaluations of the body of
work.
Scholarship of Teaching
The scholarship of teaching is inquiry that
produces knowledge to support the transfer of the science
and art of nursing from the expert to the novice, building
bridges between the teacher's understanding and the student's
learning (Boyer, 1990). This scholarly approach supports the
development of educational environments that embrace diverse
learning styles, and increasingly, places the focus of education
on the learner (Edgerton, 1997). Within nursing, the scholarship
of teaching increases the effectiveness of the transfer of
discipline-specific knowledge, and adds to deeper understanding
of both the discipline and pedagogy. The scholarship of teaching
is conducted through application of knowledge of the discipline
or specialty area in the teaching-learning process, the development
of innovative teaching and evaluation methods, program development,
learning outcome evaluation, and professional role modeling.
Knowledge of the discipline or specialty
applied in teaching-learning includes innovations that
demonstrate the knowledge of the faculty member in relation
to teaching (such as authorship of textbooks or other learning
aids), technology application, and theory building in the
teaching-learning assessment context.
Development of innovative teaching and evaluation
methods includes research in teaching strategies, course
development and outcome evaluation, curricular and faculty
evaluation innovations, research related to the knowledge
and pedagogy of nursing, and creation of innovative learning
environments that support diverse groups of students.
Program development and learning outcome
evaluation includes the development of outcomes assessment
programs, accreditation reports, grant proposals for educational
programs, disciplinary and interdisciplinary programs, and
educational evaluation models.
Professional role modeling includes
the mentoring of students and novice faculty, leadership roles
in curriculum and instruction, development of programs for
lifelong learning, and leadership in shaping educational policy.
Examples of Documentation of the Quality
of Scholarship of Teaching
- peer-reviewed publications of research related
to teaching methodology or learning outcomes, case studies
related to teaching-learning, learning theory development,
and development or testing of educational models or theories;
- accreditation or other comprehensive program
reports;
- successful applications of technology to
teaching and learning;
- positive peer assessments of innovations
in teaching;
- state, regional, national, or international
recognition as a master teacher;
- published textbooks or other learning aids;
- grant awards in support of teaching and
learning;
- design of outcome studies or evaluation/assessment
programs; and
- presentations related to teaching and learning.
Scholarship of Practice (Application)
The scholarship of practice has emerged in
nursing as a critical component in the maintenance of clinical
competency of faculty in a university setting and the advancement
of clinical knowledge in the discipline (Norbeck & Taylor,
1998; Rudy et al., 1995; and Wright, 1993). Practice scholarship
encompasses all aspects of the delivery of nursing service
where evidence of direct impact in solving health care problems
or in defining the health problems of a community is presented.
Competence in practice is the method by which knowledge in
the profession is both advanced and applied. Practice roles
for faculty in health care delivery systems may include direct
caregiver, educator, consultant, and administrator (Brown,
et al., 1995; Norbeck & Taylor, 1998; Wright, 1993).
Models through which the scholarship of practice
may be accomplished are varied (Norbeck & Taylor, 1998). These
models may include structural typologies for practice, such
as nursing centers, joint appointments with external agencies,
and faculty development; faculty role approaches, such as
teacher, practitioner, administrator, and consultant; specialty
practice arrangements, encompassing all types of clinical
expertise in nursing, including community health, primary
care, anesthesia services, midwifery services, clinical specialties,
and others; and administrative approaches, such as volunteer,
collaborative, revenue-generating, and contractual service
models. In all models, the focus is on the scholarship generated
through practice. Practice is conducted through the application
of nursing and related knowledge to the assessment and validation
of patient care outcomes, the measurement of quality of life
indicators, the development and refinement of practice protocols/strategies,
the evaluation of systems of care, and the analysis of innovative
health care delivery models.
Components of the scholarship of practice
include:
development of clinical knowledge, which
entails systematic development and application of theoretical
formulations and conduct of clinically applicable research
and evaluation studies in clinical areas of expertise;
professional development, which includes
self-development to improve competency beyond the basic practice
of professional nursing and research in specialty practice
arrangements and faculty role concepts (Brown et al., 1995);
application of technical or research skills
that promote the testing of clinical knowledge and new practice
strategies, evaluation of systems of care, development of
quality indicators, the development of innovative health care
delivery models, and others; and
service, where scholarship is directly
related to the clinical specialty of the faculty member and
flows directly from professional activity, includes the mentoring
of professional staff and students, leadership roles in developing
practice and the public health, the development of practice
standards, and the initiation of grant proposals for the creation
of delivery system models to improve access to health care
(Boyer, 1990).
Examples of Documentation of the Quality
of Practice Scholarship
- peer-reviewed publications of research,
case studies, technical applications, or other practice
issues;
- presentations related to practice;
- consultation reports;
- reports compiling and analyzing patient
or health services outcomes;
- products, patents, license copyrights;
- peer reviews of practice;
- grant awards in support of practice;
- state, regional, national, or international
recognition as a master practitioner;
- professional certifications, degrees, and
other specialty credentials;
- reports of meta-analyses related to practice
problems;
- reports of clinical demonstration projects;
and
- policy papers related to practice.
Scholarship of Integration
The scholarship of integration refers to writings
and other products that use concepts and original works from
nursing and other disciplines in creating new patterns, placing
knowledge in a larger context, or illuminating the data in
a more meaningful way. The scholarship of integration emphasizes
the interconnection of ideas, and brings new insight to bear
on original concepts and research. Critical analysis and interpretation
are two common methodologies, but interdisciplinary work may
take place through any medium for scholarship such as those
described as discovery, teaching, or practice (Boyer, 1990).
Original work in the scholarship of integration takes place
at the margins, or interface, between two disciplines. It
serves to respond to both intellectual questions and pressing
human problems by creating knowledge or combining knowledge
in applications that offer new paradigms and insights.
Integrative scholarship requires participation
from two or more disciplines in inquiry that advances knowledge
across a wide range of techniques and methodologies. Works
that would be recognized in the scholarship of integration
in nursing include interfaces between nursing and a variety
of disciplines. Integrative reviews of the literature, analysis
of health policy, development of interdisciplinary educational
programs and service projects, studies of systems in health
care, original interdisciplinary research, and integrative
models or paradigms across disciplines are examples of the
scholarship of integration.
Examples of Documentation of the
Quality of Integrative Scholarship
- peer-reviewed publications of research,
policy analysis, case studies, integrative reviews of the
literature, and others;
- copyrights, licenses, patents, or products
for sale;
- published books;
- positive peer evaluations of contributions
to integrative scholarship;
- reports of interdisciplinary programs or
service projects;
- interdisciplinary grant awards;
- presentations; and
- policy papers designed to influence organizations
or governments.
Summary
While the mission of institutions
of higher learning is unique in each setting, the commitment
to scholarly approaches to education, practice, and research
creates common bonds across the academic nursing community.
This document is intended to clarify, extend, and enhance
the scholarly work of nursing in academic settings. The application
of the standards proposed in this document will differ by
institution, yet will provide a framework for the advancement
of nursing knowledge that will ultimately improve the health
of people.
AACN Task Force on Defining Standards for
the Scholarship of Nursing
Joellen Edwards, PhD, Task Force Chair
Dean, College of Nursing
East Tennessee State University
Christine Alichnie, PhD
Chair, Department of Nursing
Bloomsburg University
Cheryl E. Easley, PhD
Dean, College of Nursing & Allied Health Sciences
Saginaw Valley State University
Sandra Edwardson, PhD
Dean, School of Nursing
University of Minnesota
Sarah B. Keating, EdD
Dean, Intercollegiate Nursing Program
Samuel Merritt-St. Mary's
Joan Stanley, PhD (Staff Liaison)
Director, Education Policy
AACN
jstanley@aacn.nche.edu
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Washington, DC: Author.
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(Approved by AACN Membership: March 15, 1999) |
